Fifty years ago, Witkin (1948) discovered that individual differences in the effects of visual cues are not merely errors of method, but that people show remarkable consistency in degree of field dependence on tests of orientation perception (Goodenough, 1986). After fiddling with aperception test using rods and frames, Witkin finally developed the Embedded Figures Test to determine the degree of field dependence or independence we each possess. No other cognitive style has been more researched in our history than that of field dependence-independence. In an effort to discover the importance of this cognitive style and its implications for education
and research, this paper begins with a general discussion of cognitive styles, including taxonomies and definitions. A review of the article “Assessment Approaches and Cognitive Styles” (Lu & Suen, 1995) follows as well as a look at specific characteristics of field dependence-independence. The next two sections of this paper examine what effects field dependence-independence has on people and what factors effect field dependence-independence. Finally, the final section reviews assessment techniques and how they relate to cognitive style.

The effects of bicultural involvement, psychological differentiation, and time perspective on depression and anxiety in one hundred Native Americans (N = 100) living on- and off-reservation are measured by: the Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire (BIQ); Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT); Beck Depression Inventory (BDI); Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D); Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Vocabulary; Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) Anxiety-Related Disorders (ARD); and Time Estimate.

Degree of Indian Blood is neither associated with nor predictive of any bicultural measures except “Wish” for more involvement in Native culture. As predicted: individuals with high involvement in both Native and Anglo cultures are less depressed than those with low involvement particularly off-reservation; high Total Anglo involvement, independent of Total Native scores, predicts less depression on both CES-D and BDI, in total sample, while predicting less BDI depression in off-reservation. Level of bicultural involvement is predictive of obsessions and traumatic stress. Off-reservation residents show clinical levels of depression, while reservation dwellers do not. Balanced cultural involvement groups show the least anxiety-related disorders. However, on reservation residents who are highly involved in both cultures show much less anxiety than those who reject their Native culture while passively aspiring to Anglo values and practices.

As predicted, psychological differentiation discriminates the most accurate Time Estimators who are more field independent than those less differentiated who show the most time errors. Additionally, groups showing more anxiety, as well as those with higher levels of involvement in Native culture, have the most inaccurate Time Estimates.

Finally, biculturalism differentially mediates depression in off-reservation residents and anxiety in on-reservation Natives. Furthermore, psychological differentiation predicts anxiety in off-reservation groups such that the most anxiety is evidenced in the least differentiated groups. Finally, implications among biculturalism, psychological differentiation, and time estimate in relation to psychological distress and resilience in on and off-reservation Native Americans are discussed.